government archives, much of which was from the period 19421945. [citation needed], The remembrance of the massacre has evolved drastically in China. The Nanking Massacre or Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanking or Rape of Nanjing, was an episode during the Second Sino-Japanese War of mass murder and mass rape by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing (then spelled Nanking), then capital of the Republic of China.. [21] Noting that different definitions produce vastly different estimates, he believes that even the significant disagreements between the historians Tokushi Kasahara and Ikuhiko Hata would disappear if they had been using the same definitions. [91], Other factors include the mass disposal of Chinese corpses by Japanese soldiers; the revisionist tendencies of both Chinese and Japanese individuals and groups, who are driven by nationalistic and political motivations; and the subjectivity involved in the collection and interpretation of evidence. Nanking Massacre death toll. The American ambassador in Hankow replied that although he supported Rabe's proposal for a ceasefire, Chiang did not. Matsui was convicted by a majority of the judges at the Tokyo tribunal who ruled that he bore ultimate responsibility for the "orgy of crime" at Nanjing because, "He did nothing, or nothing effective, to abate these horrors. [136] According to him, "of the two, however, the Great Massacre School is clearly the more sophisticated, counting among its members a large number of academics who bring a great deal of authority to their findings. . In 1995, Daniel Kwan held a photo exhibit in Los Angeles titled, "The Forgotten Holocaust". [157], Takashi Yoshida described how changing political concerns and perceptions of the "national interest" in Japan, China, and the U.S. have shaped the collective memory of the Nanjing massacre. This novel has been translated into Chinese and Russian. Dr. Robert O. Wilson, a surgeon and a member of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, took the witness stand first. It took an hour for the sounds of death to stop and even longer for the Japanese to bayonet each individual. In case of resistance or anything that seems like disapproval, there is a bayonet stab or a bullet. People are hysterical Women are being carried off every morning, afternoon and evening. Rape! The results of the survey were published in the association's magazine, Kaiko, in 1985 along with an admission and apology that read, "Whatever the severity of war or special circumstances of war psychology, we just lose words faced with this mass illegal killing. Numerological arguments about the death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities do not address this point. Besides, we count more than 150,000 victims of barbarian acts buried by the charity organizations. In 2005, John Rabe's former residence in Nanjing was renovated and now accommodates the ". In China the figure of 300,000, the death toll reckoned at the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal, is the official estimate engraved on the stone wall at the entrance of the Qin-Hua Rijun Nanjing Datsusha Yunan Tongbao Jinianguan, or the Memorial Hall for Compatriot Victims of the Japanese Military's Nanjing Massacre. Between the declaration of a ceasefire on August 15, 1945, and the arrival of American troops in Japan on August 28, "the Japanese military and civil authorities systematically destroyed military, naval, and The debate on the death toll has gone on for many decades to the point where some historians have begun to question its usefulness on the grounds that excessive quibbling over the precise death toll has distracted from the study of other more important facets of the massacre. Documents on the Rape of Nanking, p. 254. 200,000 (consensus), estimates range from 40,000 to over 300,000. Stories are heard of civilians being shot or bayoneted for no apparent reason.[62]. . [29] Some authors record that Prince Asaka signed the order for Japanese soldiers in Nanjing to "kill all captives". [15], Between then and the late 1940s these two estimates were commonly cited by reporters and the media. [148][149], On February 20, 2012, Takashi Kawamura, mayor of Nagoya, told a visiting delegation from Nanjing that the massacre "probably never happened". [86] Some of the concealed information was made public a few decades later. These figures also do not take into account those persons whose bodies were destroyed by burning, drowning or other means, or whose bodies were interred in mass graves. ", "Case 16 A Chinese girl named Loh, who, with her mother and brother, was living in one of the Refugee Centers in the Refugee Zone, was shot through the head and killed by a Japanese soldier. 2. The poems capture all perspectives of the tragedyfrom the weary, casually cruel Japanese soldiers to the uncomprehending child victims, and from the desperate helpless parents and the brutalized comfort women to the bloodless yet vicious bureaucrats of death. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1949. [112], The duration of the incident is naturally defined by its geography: the earlier the Japanese entered the area, the longer the duration. A bar graph comparing four different claims for the number of non-military victims of the Nanjing Massacre, as well as the death toll claims of six different groups. [T]here is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found. [67], Soon after the fall of the city, Japanese troops made a thorough search for Chinese soldiers and summarily arrested thousands of young Chinese men. Following the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese Imperial Army marched from Shanghai to the Chinese capital city of Nanking, and though a large number of Chinese POWs and civilians were slaughtered by the Japanese following their entrance into Nanking on . Jones, Paul. Eyewitness accounts include testimonies of expatriates engaged in humanitarian work (mostly physicians, professors, missionary and businessmen), journalists (both Western and Japanese), as well as the field diaries of military personnel. They accused Beijing of using the alleged incident as a "political advertisement". Kasahara generally concludes that the death toll must have been well over 100,000, and possibly around 200,000. [133] In her book Rape of Nanjing, Iris Chang asserted that the politics of the Cold War encouraged Chairman Mao to stay relatively silent about Nanjing in order to keep a trade relationship with Japan. Other members of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone who took the witness stand included Miner Searle Bates and John Magee. We "pikankan." "[91] However, Masahiro Yamamoto printed a rebuttal of Gluck's statement in his book Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity, arguing that "To determine the extent and nature of [Japan's] responsibility, the 'numerological arguments about the death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities,' which [Gluck] termed as irrelevant to the moral question, are essential. General Iwane Matsui waited another hour before issuing the command to take Nanjing by force. [54][55] On the other hand, at least one historian has noted that the atrocity in Nanking could be equated with the entire war waged by Japan on China. [39], In 1937, the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun and its sister newspaper, the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, covered a contest between two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda of the Japanese 16th Division. In regards to the Nanjing Massacre, Japanese authorities deliberately concealed wartime records, eluding confiscation from American authorities. A Japanese hotelier's denial of a 1937 massacre by Japanese troops in the Chinese city of Nanjing has prompted Chinese social media calls for a boycott of travel to Japan, threatening tourist . Added in 24 Hours. It was truly a regrettable act of barbarity. During the chaos following the attack of the city, some were killed in the Safety Zone, but the crimes that occurred in the rest of the city were far greater by all accounts. Targets within and outside of the city wallssuch as military barracks, private homes, the Chinese Ministry of Communication, forests and even entire villageswere completely burnt down, at an estimated value of US$2030 million (1937). However, death toll estimates vary widely with some ranging as low as 40,000 . Yoshida argues that "Nanjing crystallizes a much larger conflict over what should constitute the ideal perception of the nation: Japan, as a nation, acknowledges its past and apologizes for its wartime wrongdoings; or stands firm against foreign pressures and teaches Japanese youth about the benevolent and courageous martyrs who fought a just war to save Asia from Western aggression. [8] These events are collectively known as the Nanking Massacre. In 21st century Japan, the Nanjing Massacre touches upon national identity and notions of "pride, honor and shame". Dublin Core. The capacity of the hospital was normally one hundred and eighty beds, and this was kept full to overflowing during this entire period. Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre Last updated May 04, 2022. The compound is located in a neutral zone in Japanese-occupied Shanghai, which is the reason why a group of prostitutes also end up there. Two days later he defended his remarks, saying, "Even since I was a national Diet representative, I have said [repeatedly] there was no [Nanjing] massacre that resulted in murders of several hundred thousands of people. [5] Instead they threw away their uniforms and weapons and hid among the city's civilian population. At trial, Matsui went out of his way to protect Prince Asaka by shifting blame to lower-ranking division commanders. Honda believes all those atrocities that were committed on "the road to Nanking" were part of the massacre. He alleged it would have been impossible to kill so many people in such a short period of time. Their stories and those of the German residents tell of the city having fallen into the hands of the Japanese as captured prey, not merely taken in the course of organized warfare but seized by an invading army whose members seemed to have set upon the prize to commit unlimited depredations and violence. [47][48], The International Military Tribunal for the Far East stated that the massacre took place in the parts of Nanking captured on December 13, 1937, and after and lasted until early February 1938. There was no belt. In his novel Ikiteiru Heitai ('Living Soldiers'), Tatsuz Ishikawa vividly describes how the 16th Division of the Shanghai Expeditionary Force committed atrocities on the march between Shanghai and Nanjing. [12][23][24], The first historian to make an academic estimate of the death toll of the Nanking Massacre was Tomio Hora in his 1967 book Kindai Senshi no Nazo ("Riddles of Modern War History"), who argued in favor of 200,000. In a documentary film about the Nanjing Massacre, In the Name of the Emperor, a former Japanese soldier named Shiro Azuma spoke candidly about the process of rape and murder in Nanjing.[50]. However, Askew notes that Japanese units often exaggerated their body counts. [21], Then in 1997 Kasahara formulated a definition between the two. According to Xinhua News Agency, it is the most complete record to date. The contesta race between the two officers to see who could kill 100 people first using only a swordwas covered much like a sporting event with regular updates on the score over a series of days. [22] The International Military Tribunal of the Far East tallied up 155,000 victims of the massacre, though in their verdict against General Iwane Matsui this figure was modified somewhat to "upwards of 100,000 people". It referred to the Nanjing massacre as an "incident", and glossed over the issue of comfort women. [6] Over the course of its subsequent occupation of Nanking the Japanese Army hunted down the former Chinese soldiers within the city and in a large number of cases summarily executed them. The Chinese women were undefended, their menfolk powerless or absent. China on Monday marked the 84th anniversary of the Nanking Massacre, in which hundreds of thousands of civilians and disarmed soldiers were killed by Japanese troops in and around the former Chinese capital. [85] Approximately 70 percent of the Japanese army's wartime records were destroyed. Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing", This page was last edited on 31 December 2022, at 03:33. Chiang's strategy was to follow the suggestion of his German advisers to draw the Japanese army deep into China and use China's vast territory as a defensive strength. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000), 112. [34], In reference to the greatly divergent ways in which various scholars have delineated the massacre, Askew has affirmed that the debate on the death toll "is meaningless if two completely different definitions are being used". Some soldiers then went to the next room, where Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and 14 [were]. Bates, Miner Searle", "International Memory of the World Register Documents of Nanjing Massacre", "New film has Japan vets confessing to Nanjing rape", 1937 Japanese Field Commander's Map of the Battle of Shanghai, China, "Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre (originally published as Nankin Jiken: "Shokoshashin" wo Kenshosuru)", The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, "War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries", "Jurist Paper Chase: Japanese court rules newspaper didn't fabricate 1937 Chinese killing game", "The scars of Nanking: Memories of a Japanese outrage", "Five Western Journalists in the Doomed City", "Chinese Fight Foe Outside Nanking; See Seeks's Stand", "The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone: An Introduction", "Genocide in the 20th Century: The Rape of Nanking 19371938 (300,000 Deaths)", "Special Report: How the Nanjing Massacre became a weapon | GRI", "Basic Facts on the Nanking Massacre and the Toyoko War Crimes Trial", "HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East [Chapter 8]", "Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing: Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape", American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin, "Why the Past Still Separates China and Japan", "HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Chapter 8) (Paragraph 2, p. 1015, Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East)", "25 July 1946. But even last night between 8 and 9 p.m. when five Occidental members of our staff and Committee toured the Zone to observe conditions, we did not find any single Japanese patrol either in the Zone or at the entrances! [citation needed], Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}3203N 11846E / 32.050N 118.767E / 32.050; 118.767, A Japanese soldier pictured with the corpses of Chinese civilians by the, Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanjing, Retreating Chinese Troops' Scorched-Earth Policy, Extrajudicial killing of Chinese prisoners of war, Nanking Safety Zone and the role of foreigners, Apology and condolences by the Prime Minister and Emperor of Japan, Denials of the massacre by public officials in Japan, 1. [59] However, Jean-Louis Margolin does not believe that the Nanjing atrocities should be considered a genocide because only prisoners of war were executed in a systematic manner and the targeting of civilians was sporadic and done without orders by individual actors. Following the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese Imperial Army marched from Shanghai to the Chinese capital city of Nanking, and though a large number of Chinese POWs and civilians were slaughtered by the Japanese following their entrance into Nanking on . By contrast, Minoru Kitamura argues that Smythe's links to the Nationalist Government of China may have led him to skew his figures upwards. During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanjingwhich, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degreethe Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese. One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today. Unable to escape, the POWs could only scream and thrash desperately. [7] At the same time soldiers of the Japanese Army also committed random acts of murder against civilians, and engaged in rape, arson, and looting. From Jurong to Tangshan (two cities in Jiangshu Province, China), Mukai had killed 89 people while Noda had killed 78. General Matsui was indicted before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for "deliberately and recklessly" ignoring his legal duty "to take adequate steps to secure the observance and prevent breaches" of the Hague Convention. They also murdered hundreds of thousands . Currently, the most reliable and widely agreed upon figures place the total death toll of the massacre between the broad range of 40,000 to 200,000 massacre victims in the entire Nanking Special Administrative District. It was worse. Instead, they wore trousers tied with a string. English Articles. I could go on for pages telling of cases of rape and brutality almost beyond belief. For example, Edgar Snow stated in his 1941 book, The Battle for Asia, that 42,000 were massacred in Nanking and 300,000 in total between Nanking and Shanghai, figures which were apparently based on these estimates. The General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo initially decided not to expand the war due to the high casualties incurred and the low morale of the troops. Only since the 1990s, through the revisionist Patriotic Education Campaign, the massacre has become a national memory as an episode of the "Century of Humiliation" prior to the communist founding of a "New China". Killings were most intense in the first five days from December 13 and remained moderately intense until December 31, 1937, according to the Japanese military records. [21], The second type of source is the burial records written down by Chinese charitable associations. Hata discounts estimates of the death toll which range into the hundreds of thousands on the basis that, according to Smythe, Nanking's civilian population was only between 200,000 and 250,000. Table of Content Show Japan's invasion of Chinese . In 2006 former Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi made a pilgrimage to the shrine despite warnings from China and South Korea. This resulted in widespread looting and burglary.[73]. [177] Indeed, there is only one sentence that refers to this event: "they [the Japanese troops] occupied that city in December. "Case 5 On the night of December 14th, there were many cases of Japanese soldiers entering houses and raping women or taking them away. The massacre occurred over six weeks starting December 13, 1937, the day that the Japanese captured Nanjing. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding the number of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. At dusk, the soldiers divided POWs into four columns and opened fire. What followed was nothing short of chaos. According to the Mainichi Shinbun, this is a photo of Nanking citizens wearing armbands of the flag of Japan and giving cheers to the Japanese military on the day of its Ceremonial Entry into Nanking on December 17, 1937.. Takashi Yoshida asserts that, "Nanjing has figured in the attempts of all three nations [China, Japan and the . [173][174][175], "During this period, when the Japanese Army occupied Nanjing it killed a large number of Chinese and carried out looting, arson and assaults. [144], A faction of Japanese politicians who are unapologetic to the deaths in Nanjing have triggered a recurring point of tension in Sino-Japanese relations. Answer (1 of 16): 1. . The lack of resistance from Chinese troops and civilians in Nanjing meant that the Japanese soldiers were free to divide up the city's valuables as they saw fit. The "Great Massacre School" group supports the validity of the findings at the Tokyo Trials, and concludes that there were at least 200,000 casualties and at least 20,000 rape cases; whereas "The Illusion School" group rejects tribunal findings as "victor's justice". Two girls, about 16, were raped to death in one of the refugee camps. [124], In 1947, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda, the two officers responsible for the contest to kill 100 people, were both arrested and extradited to China. [33][note 3]. [50] In their view Honda, who had previously put forward the idea that more than 100,000 people were murdered in the city of Nanking alone, was failing to prove his argument and therefore sought to extend the boundaries of the massacre until a larger figure for the death toll could be achieved. The total death toll of the Nanjing Massacre is a highly contentious subject in Chinese and Japanese historiography. 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